Eugenika

Eugenika (dari akar bahasa Yunani εὐγενής eugenes 'berketurunan baik'; daripada εὖ eu, 'baik' dan γένος genos, 'bangsa, keturunan')^[1]^[2] ialah falsafah sosial yang terdiri daripada suatu kepercayaan memperbaiki mutu genetik populasi umat manusia^[3]^[4] melalui penyingkiran orang-orang berpenyakit dan cacat serta memperbanyakkan individu sihat fizikal badan.^[5]

Pada abad ke-20, banyak negara melakukan pelbagai usaha yang bertujuan mencapai ketulenan genetik ini seperti memaksa pengguguran kandungan, genosida, pengendalian kelahiran, penyelidikan genetik, serta undang-undang yang melarang berkahwin dengan kelompok tertentu.

Latar belakang

Konsep penulenan baka atau keturunan untuk melahirkan dan membentuk manusia yang sempurna telah lama difikirkan seawal zaman Plato, di mana filsuf tersebut mencadangkan pembiakan terpilih demi menghasilkan suatu kelas atau kasta penjaga.^[6] Di Sparta misalnya, setiap anak yang lahir akan diperiksa oleh suatu majlis yang menetukan nasib anak tersebut sama ada dibenarkan hidup. Seorang bapa di Rom Purba diwajibkan membunuh anak kelahirannya dengan segera sekiranya didapati berkelainan upaya secara fizikal.^[7]

Idea eugenik yang moden berasaskan suatu kefahaman terhadap kewarisan manusia mulanya datang daripada pemberi nama bidang ini Francis Galton,^[8] seorang ahli antropologi dan sosiologi dari England yang mendapat ilham daripada teori evolusi Charles Darwin^[9] lalu berhasrat memakai prinsip-prinsip pemilihan semula jadi Darwin itu kepada manusia,^[10] dengan alasan ciri-ciri kemanusiaan yang diingini itu bisa diwarisi, namun perkara tersebut ditolak Darwin sendiri.^[10]

Pengenalan kepada ilmu genetik menjadikan eugenik dikaitkan dengan faham penentuan genetik (genetik determinism) di mana perwatakan manusia itu dipercayai bergantung sepenuhnya atau kebanyakannya kepada gen tanpa dijejaskan pendidikan atau persekitaran.

Penggunapakaian eugenik ini mencapai kemuncaknya apabila ia salahgunakan sebagai suatu pelaksanaan ideologi pemurnian ras yang dijalankan rejim NSDAP di bawah pimpinan Adolf Hitler.

Jenis dan implementasi

Menurut ahli psikologi Richard Lynn, eugenik boleh dibahagikan berdasarkan cara aplikasinya.^[11]

Eugenika klasik (Classical eugenics)
- Pendidikan seks di sekolah.^[12]
- Pengalakkan alat mencegahan hamil^[13] serta penyelidikan atas penaiktarafan mutunya^[14]
- Pengguguran.^[15]

Eugenika baru (New eugenics)
- Persenyawaan buatan.^[16]^[17]
- Pendermaan ovum.^[18]
- Pemilihan embrio.^[19]
- Kejuruteraan genetik.^[20]
- Terapi gen.^[21]
- Pengeklonan manusia.^[22]

Persoalan yang diungkitkan

Kecekapan

Etika

Pengalaman dan sejarah yang diperolehi hasil kesan politik dan sosial eugenik menekankan suatu perbincangan mengenai tempat mana yang layak untuk bidang ini pasa masa hadapan. Para penolak menghujahkan bahawa ia dapat membawa kepada langkah-langkah berlanjutan yang tidak beretika,^[23] seperti kembalinya pelanggaran hak asasi manusia termasuk pensterilan, eutanasia, pengasingan atau genosida terhadap "bangsa-bangsa" yang dianggap lebih bawahan atau "hina".^[24] Ahli etika persekitaran Bill McKibben dalam buku nukilannya Enough: Staying Human in an Engineered Age (2003) menghujahkan mengenai pelanggaran moral yang wujud dengan campur tangan manusia terhadap aspek-aspek merek ayang tersnediri melalui strategi bioteknologi maju yang berniat mengatasi had-had manusia yang universal (termasuk penuaan serta batasan fizikal dan kognitif), lalu menyingkirkan batasan yang memberikan konteks yang perlu untuk mengalami suatu pilihan yang kemanusiaan dan kehidupan akan hilang maknanya.^[25]

Rujukan

^ "εὐγενής". Greek Word Study Tool. Medford, Massachusetts: Tufts University. 2009. Dicapai pada 19 October 2017. Database includes entries from A Greek–English Lexicon and other English dictionaries of Ancient Greek.
^ "γένος". Greek Word Study Tool. 2009. Dicapai pada 19 October 2017.
^ "Eugenics". Unified Medical Language System (Psychological Index Terms). Bethesda, Maryland: National Library of Medicine. 2009. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 16 October 2010. Dicapai pada 19 October 2017. Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (bantuan)
^ Galton, Francis (Julai 1904). "Eugenics: Its Definition, Scope, and Aims". The American Journal of Sociology. X (1): 82. Bibcode:1904Natur..70...82.. doi:10.1038/070082a0. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 3 November 2007. Dicapai pada 27 Disember 2010. Eugenics is the science which deals with all influences that improve the inborn qualities of a race; also with those that develop them to the utmost advantage. Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (bantuan)
^ "Development of a Eugenic Philosophy" oleh Frederick Osborn dalam jurnal American Sociological Review, jld. 2, No. 3 (Jun 1937) , m/s. 389-397.
^ "Eugenics". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Center for the Study of Language and Information, Stanford University. 2 July 2014. Dicapai pada 2 January 2015.
^ The Laws of the Twelve Tables, c.450 B.C. "A dreadfully deformed child shall be quickly killed"
^ James D., Watson; Berry, Andrew (2009). DNA: The Secret of Life. Knopf.
^ Bowler, Peter J., Evolution: The History of an Idea, 3rd Ed., University of California Press, 2003, pp. 308–310.
^ ^a ^b Hansen, Randall (2005). "Eugenics". Dalam Gibney, Matthew J.; Hansen, Randall (penyunting). Eugenics: Immigration and Asylum from 1990 to Present. ABC-CLIO. Dicapai pada 23 September 2013.
^ Lynn 2001. Part III. The Implementation of Classical Eugenics pp. 137–244 Part IV. The New Eugenics pp. 245–320
^ Lynn 2001. pp. 170–172
^ Lynn 2001. pp. 174–176
^ Lynn 2001. pp. 179–181
^ Lynn 2001. pp. 182–185
^ Lynn 2001. p. 246
^ Redvaldsen, David (26 June 2014). "Eugenics, socialism and artificial insemination: The public career of Herbert Brewer". Historical Research. 88 (239): 138–160. doi:10.1111/1468-2281.12074. Dicapai pada 19 October 2017.
^ Lynn 2001. p. 247
^ Lynn 2001. p. 252
^ Lynn 2001. p. 253
^ Lynn 2001. p. 254
^ Lynn 2001. pp. 254–255
^ Lynn 2001. The Ethical Principles of Classical Eugenics – Conclusions P. 241 Quote: "A number of the opponents of eugenics have resorted to the slippery slope argument, which states that although a number of eugenic measures are unobjectionable in themselves, they could lead to further measures that would be unethical. This argument is unpersuasive because all sorts of measures that are acceptable might, if taken to extremes, lead to other measures that are unacceptable."
^ Black, Edwin (2003). War Against the Weak: Eugenics and America's Campaign to Create a Master Race. Four Walls Eight Windows. ISBN 1-56858-258-7. Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (bantuan)CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
^ McKibben, Bill (2003). Enough: Staying Human in an Engineered Age. Times Books. ISBN 0-8050-7096-6. OCLC 237794777.

Pautan luar

(Inggeris) Nietzsche - Beyond Good and Evil. A Philosophical discussion and a prelude to Eugenics
(Inggeris) Eugenics - a planned evolution for life Diarkibkan 2006-03-13 di Wayback Machine
(Inggeris) Future Generations Eugenics Portal
(Inggeris) Mankind Quarterly
(Inggeris) Future Human Evolution: Eugenics in the Twenty-First Century by John Glad
(Inggeris) Eugenics Archive - Historical Material on the Eugenics Movement (didanai Projek Genom Manusia)
(Inggeris) Shoaheducation.com:Eugenics
(Inggeris) University of Virginia Historical Collections: Eugenics
(Inggeris) "Deadly Medicine: Creating the Master Race" Diarkibkan 2012-10-26 di Wayback Machine (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum exhibit)
(Inggeris) Vermont Eugenics: A documentary history
(Inggeris) DNA: Pandora's Box - dokumentari PBS mengenai DNA, Projek Genom Manusia, anserta persoalan berkaitan suatu eugenik yang "baru"
(Inggeris) Fighting Fire with Fire: African Americans and Hereditarian Thinking, 1900-1942 Diarkibkan 2006-09-20 di Wayback Machine - article on the support of eugenics by African American thinkers
(Inggeris) "Eugenics -- Breeding a Better Citizenry Through Science" Diarkibkan 2007-07-03 di Wayback Machine, penulisan kritikan mengenai eugenik daripada antropologis fizikal Jonathan Marks
(Inggeris) "The Quest for a Perfect Society" Diarkibkan 2006-08-29 di Wayback Machine, majalah Awake! (22 September 2000)
(Inggeris) "Eugenics and other Evils"^{[pautan mati kekal]},G K Chesterton's "Eugenics and other Evils." (1922)
(Inggeris) "Eugenics" Diarkibkan 2007-06-21 di Wayback Machine - National Reference Center for Bioethics Literature Scope Note 28, features overview of eugenics history and annotated bibliography of historical literature

Rencana berkenaan sosiologi ini ialah rencana tunas. Anda boleh membantu Wikipedia dengan mengembangkannya.

[1] "εὐγενής". Greek Word Study Tool. Medford, Massachusetts: Tufts University. 2009. Dicapai pada 19 October 2017. Database includes entries from A Greek–English Lexicon and other English dictionaries of Ancient Greek.

[2] "γένος". Greek Word Study Tool. 2009. Dicapai pada 19 October 2017.

[3] "Eugenics". Unified Medical Language System (Psychological Index Terms). Bethesda, Maryland: National Library of Medicine. 2009. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 16 October 2010. Dicapai pada 19 October 2017. Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (bantuan)

[Galton1904-4] Galton, Francis (Julai 1904). "Eugenics: Its Definition, Scope, and Aims". The American Journal of Sociology. X (1): 82. Bibcode:1904Natur..70...82.. doi:10.1038/070082a0. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 3 November 2007. Dicapai pada 27 Disember 2010. Eugenics is the science which deals with all influences that improve the inborn qualities of a race; also with those that develop them to the utmost advantage. Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (bantuan)

[Osborn1937-5] "Development of a Eugenic Philosophy" oleh Frederick Osborn dalam jurnal American Sociological Review, jld. 2, No. 3 (Jun 1937) , m/s. 389-397.

[6] "Eugenics". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Center for the Study of Language and Information, Stanford University. 2 July 2014. Dicapai pada 2 January 2015.

[7] The Laws of the Twelve Tables, c.450 B.C. "A dreadfully deformed child shall be quickly killed"

[8] James D., Watson; Berry, Andrew (2009). DNA: The Secret of Life. Knopf.

[Bowler_309-9] Bowler, Peter J., Evolution: The History of an Idea, 3rd Ed., University of California Press, 2003, pp. 308–310.

[credoreference.com-10] Hansen, Randall (2005). "Eugenics". Dalam Gibney, Matthew J.; Hansen, Randall (penyunting). Eugenics: Immigration and Asylum from 1990 to Present. ABC-CLIO. Dicapai pada 23 September 2013.

[11] Lynn 2001. Part III. The Implementation of Classical Eugenics pp. 137–244 Part IV. The New Eugenics pp. 245–320

[12] Lynn 2001. pp. 170–172

[13] Lynn 2001. pp. 174–176

[14] Lynn 2001. pp. 179–181

[15] Lynn 2001. pp. 182–185

[16] Lynn 2001. p. 246

[17] Redvaldsen, David (26 June 2014). "Eugenics, socialism and artificial insemination: The public career of Herbert Brewer". Historical Research. 88 (239): 138–160. doi:10.1111/1468-2281.12074. Dicapai pada 19 October 2017.

[18] Lynn 2001. p. 247

[19] Lynn 2001. p. 252

[20] Lynn 2001. p. 253

[21] Lynn 2001. p. 254

[22] Lynn 2001. pp. 254–255

[23] Lynn 2001. The Ethical Principles of Classical Eugenics – Conclusions P. 241 Quote: "A number of the opponents of eugenics have resorted to the slippery slope argument, which states that although a number of eugenic measures are unobjectionable in themselves, they could lead to further measures that would be unethical. This argument is unpersuasive because all sorts of measures that are acceptable might, if taken to extremes, lead to other measures that are unacceptable."

[Black_2003-24] Black, Edwin (2003). War Against the Weak: Eugenics and America's Campaign to Create a Master Race. Four Walls Eight Windows. ISBN 1-56858-258-7. Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (bantuan)CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)

[McKibben_2003-25] McKibben, Bill (2003). Enough: Staying Human in an Engineered Age. Times Books. ISBN 0-8050-7096-6. OCLC 237794777.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]